Classification and Diversity

Classification =  The process of putting similar objects into like groups or categories.  The
     reason that we classify organisms in Biology is to make them easier to study.
    One of the characteristics we use to help classify organisms is their symmetry.
    Symmetry means shape.  Their are three basic types of symmetry.  However, you need to
    remember that no living object is perfectly symmetrical.

    The three types of Symmetry are:
        1.  Asymmetrical -  The organism has no definite shape and can not be divided into two
                equal halves.  Example would be an amoeba.
        2.  Radial - This does not necessarily mean the organism has to be round.  These organisms
                can  be divided into more than two equal halves, like a pie can be cut in two several
                ways.   Example, tree, sea star, sand dollar, or an orange.
        3. Bilateral -  Most higher organism fall in this category.  These organism can only be divided
                into two equal halves.  Example, humans have two eyes, two arms, two legs etc. the
                only way to get two equal sides is to divide them down the middle between the eyes.

 Carl Linnaeus developed the modern system of classification.  It is the method that is still used
    around the world.  The system he developed is called the Binomial Classification System
    (in latin this means two names).  This system groups organisms into seven major categories.
    Going from the most general to the most specific.  Listed below are the 7 major categories.

          KINGDOM - LARGEST MOST DIVERSE GROUP
          PHYLUM
          CLASS
          ORDER
          FAMILY
          GENUS
          SPECIES - MOST SPECIFIC, IDENTIFY A SINGLE ANIMAL

 The Genus and species is always underlined, Genus is always capitalized while species is lower
    case.  The reason for underlining or using italics to set these two off is to denote the binomial
    name of any particular organism.  When referring to a specific animal a scientist uses both Genus
    and species  for example Homo sapiens = human, Mephitis mephitis = skunk  etc....
    Because two names are always used to identify a specific organism the classification system is
    called the Binomial Classification System.

 The largest most diverse categories are the kingdoms, of which there are currently six.  The six
    kingdoms are:  Archaebacteria    Eubacteria      Protista           Fungi           Plants           Animals

 When Linnaeus first began classify organisms in the late 1770's he had only two kingdoms, Plants
    and Animals.  As scientist's understanding of organisms has improved and new technologies have
    emerged new kingdoms have been added or old kingdoms split up.  For example, Linnaeus put
    mushrooms in the plant kingdom, but we now know that there are vast differences between fungi
    and plants including no:  roots, leaves, chlorophyll, photosynthesis, flowers, or seeds.  As I just
    mentioned fungi are very different from plants, not having many of the typical plant characteristics.
    Another important characteristic difference between plants and fungi is that the cell walls of plants
    are composed of cellulose while the cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin.  Currently there
    are only five kingdoms, however, with new evidence into viruses, which are currently not included
    in any kingdom, a new sixth kingdom may be proposed, only time will tell.

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VIRUS:  Latin for "poison". 

    *  Currently not considered to be alive.
        There are two reasons why we believe this.
            1.    It doesn't fit the cell theory
            2.    It doesn't have enough of the 11 characteristics of life.

LIFE CYCLES OF THE VIRUS:
    1.  Lands on a cell.  The virus has to land in a specific way on the right kind of cell and orient
        itself the right way.
    2.  Injects it nucleic acid
    3.  Hi-jacks the cell and forces it to make more viruses
    4.  Cell begins to produce more viruses.
    5.  The cell bursts, spilling out all of the viruses.

    Interferon -This is a substance produced by the cell under attack by the virus.  The cell sends out
    a message to the surrounding uninfected cells, alerting them to the viral presence.

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Moneran Kingdom

     This is the most primitive of the 5 kingdoms.  This is also the oldest kingdom, we have fossil
evidence of bacteria 3 billion years old.  The organisms which comprise the Moneran kingdom are
all Prokaryotic.  A prokaryote is an organism that is a single cell and does not contain a nucleus.
So all monerans are single celled organisms without a nucleus, two prime examples are bacteria, and
blue-green algae.

      Two Groups of Monerans:
        1.  Archaebacteria - oldest (archae means Ancient); .  It was first formed in harsh conditions
            and is only found in extremely harsh environments.  (Environments where it is really cold,
            hot, or Great Salt Lakes.
        2.  Eubacteria - "true" bacteria

      Two Key Roles in the Environment:
        1.  Decomposers - makes it smell to protect food source.
        2.  N₂ Fixers - convert it into a usable form (nitrate).

    Most Bacteria prefer the following three factors in which to grow:
        1.  Warmth
        2.  Moisture
        3.  Dark, but not absolutely necessary.

        Monerans can be both beneficial an harmful.  There are several ways that they can beneficial.
        For example, being used for medicines, for food (cheese, yougurt, sour cream), and oil eaters.
        They can also be harmful, for instance the spreading of disease or the spoilage of food.

    Identification of bacteria
        There are 3 key characteristics that microbiologist look for in identification of bacteria.

        1.    Shape
                Bacteria have 3 Basic Shapes:
                    a.  Coccus - sphere/round
                    b.  Bacillus - rod-shaped
                    c.  Sprillus - spiral
        2.    Arrangement
                Bacteria are arranged or grow in certain patterns.  (Below are a few key arrangements)
                    a.  diplo = pair    (diplococcus or diplobacillus)
                    b.  strepto = chain   (streptococcus  or streptobacillus)
                    c.  staphylo = cluster. (staphylococcus)
        3.    Gram Stain
                The cell walls of bacteria absorb the gram stain differently.
                    a.  If it picks up the stain they are called Gram Positive (G+) & appear purple
                    b.  If it doesn't pick up the stain they are called Gram Negative (G-) & appear pink

    Bacterial Reproduction:
         Most of the time bacteria reproduce asexually.
            The process is called binary fission - cell splits in half

        On occasion bacteria can reproduce sexual.
            This process is called conjugation

              *    F+ cells are the only ones that can initiate conjugation
              *    The F+ cells contain a plasmid (extra piece of DNA) that the F- cells do not have
              *    The F+ cells are able to build a pili or tube/bridge to connect with he F-
              *    The F+ replicates its plasmid sends it to F-
              *    The F-  now becomes F+ that can initiate conjugation.

    Endospores -  Some bacteria have the ability to produce a structure called an endospore.
        Endospores are a capsule containing the bacteria’s genetic information.  The endospores
        are able to withstand  very harsh environmental conditions.  When the conditions are more
        favorable for the bacteria the endospores germinate.

    Botulism - caused by Clostridium Botulinum.  Found in canned goods due to its ability to
        produce these endospores.   Another example is Clostridium tetani which causes
        Tetanus or lock jaw.

    Pasteurization:
         There are two main reasons for pasteurization.
            1.    To prevent disease
            2.    Slow spoilage.
        The way to accomplish this is to lower the number of bacteria.

    There are three methods for Pasteurizing things.
        1.    Batch Holding    Heat milk to 62^o C for 30 minutes stir constantly and then cool rapidly.
        2.    Flash Pasteurization Heat milk to 72^o C for 15 seconds and then cool rapidly.
        3.    Ultra High Temp Pasteurization    Heat milk to 130^o C for 1 second, then  cool it rapidly.
 

Alexander Flemming (1929) First torecognize the antibiotic properties in penicillin.

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Kingdom Protista

    The organism within this category are also mostly single celled.  However, the big difference is
that they have a nucleus.  Those cells that possess a nucleus are called Eukaryotes.  Ninety-five
percent of all cells are eukaryotic.

    The  kingdom Protista can be divided into 3 Groups
        1.  Protozoans - first early animals
        2.  Algae
        3.  Slime Molds

    Protozoans - are classified by their mode of locomotion

        1.  Sarcodines - move by psuedopods (false feet); example: an amoeba
              (amoeba eats by phagocytosis; which means it engulfs its food.)

        2.  Ciliates -  move by using tiny hairlike structures (cilia); example: paramecium.

        3.  Flagellates - move by using a whiplike structure called a flagella; example: euglena
                    The euglena has chloroplasts and prefers to photosynthesize, but has both plant and
                    animal characteristics.  It also has an eyspot which it uses to detect light called a
                    stigma.)

    Algae -  There are five types of algae classified according to their color

        1.  Golden Algae - These are referred to as diatoms
                                    They are microscopic and have shells made out of silicon
                                    They come in varied geometric shapes.

        2.  Brown Algae -  This is a kind of sea weed, it prefers cold water - N. California, Artic
                                    example: Kelp - fastest growing organism in the world, growing 1 inch
                                    per hour.  It is protected by California due to how important it is to the
                                    economy.

        3.  Red Algae -     Another kind of sea weed  -- Gulf of Mexico - Sargassum
                                    Carragenan is a seaweed used as a smoothing agent in ice cream because it
                                    keeps the cream and flavors together.

        4.  Green Algae - has chloroplasts & chlorophyll; can therefore carry out photosynthesis.  An
                                Example:  pond scum  Spirogyra - where the chloroplasts is found in spirals.
                        **    Biologist believe that the higher plants evolved from green algae.

        5.  Fire Algae - Microscopic;  Many have a red tint;
                                Some are bioluminescent;
                                Example:  Dinoflagellates  they go through a bloom twice a year, once in the
                                Fall & again in the Spring;   They are the causes of the Red Tide you hear
                                about in the news.  Each Dinoflagellate contains a small amount of toxin.
                                Normally fish eating these Dinoflagellates do not get enough toxin to harm
                                them, but during the Red Tide their numbers increase dramatically & fish die
                                from eating too many of the toxins.  Humans who eat fish or shellfish
                                contaminated with the toxins can also become sick and die.

    Slime Molds

        These unique organism are sometimes classified as Fungi.  One of their characteristics that
    gets them placed into the Protista Kingdom is that they have the ability to move.  The move
    across the forest floor with amoebic type movement.  They come in many different colors
    oranges, yellow

    Lichen

        Another gray area exist between the Protistan Kingdom and the Fungi Kingdom.  An organism
    called the Lichen which consist of both a green algae and a fungus living together.  Both organism
    need the other for its survival, this kind of cooperation between two species is called Symbiosis.

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FUNGI

    The study of fungi is called Mycology.  Fungi are typified by mushrooms and molds.  Fungi
play a very important role in the environment as decomposers.  They are one of the key organisms
responsible for recycling the organic matter back into soil.

       Fungi are heterotrophs
        a.  Parasites - feed off the living;   Examples would be ringworm or athlete’s foot.
                            The host is what the parasite is feeding on.
        b.  Saphrophytes - feeds off the dead; decomposers.  Most fungi are saprophytic

    The main body of a fungus is found under the surface.  It is called mycelium, it looks like a
mass of threads. The individual threads of the mycelium are called hyphea.

    Fungi grows in a circular pattern, constantly growing outward looking for new material to decompose.

     Reproduction

    Asexually - Without sex   There are two methods

        a.    Fragmentation - When the fungus is broken up into bits and pieces.  Whether it is the
                            mushroom the mycelium or whatever, where ever the piece of fungus falls it
                            can start a new fungus.

        b.    Spore formation - When a fungus is beginning to run out of food or the environment is
                    beginning to become harsh the fungus produces spores asexually.  These spores
                    produced on fruiting bodies that rise above the surface allow the spores to be carried
                    by the wind to a more favorable spot.   The stalk of the fruiting body is called the
                   sporangiophore, the head (where the spores are) is called the sporagia.

    Sexually - Sexual reproduction involves the exchange or mixing of genetic material.  This differs
                    from asexual reproduction because it requires two different fungi of the same species.
                    A specialized structure called a gametangia is required.  The gametangia is capable
                    of producing gametes or sex cells.  These gametes are haploid (contain 1/2 of the normal
                    genetic material).

                There are three main ways that fungi carry out sexual reproduction.

                        1.    Two gametangia from two different fungi both release their gametes.
                                The gametes fuse to form a zygote (fertilized egg).
                        2.    One of the fungi releases gametes from its gametangia.  Those gametes
                                penetrate the other fungi's gametangia fertilizing the gametes within.
                        3.    The tips of the two gametangia fuse together without ever releasing their
                                gametes.
 

     6 Types or Categories of Fungi
        1.  Chytridiomycetes - water fungi - the most ancient of fungi groups.

        2.  Zygomycetes - black bread mold

        3.  Oomycetes - produce gametes (sex cells -sperm, eggs);  the diseases caused:
                a.  Potato Blight
                b.  Downy Mildew of Grape - first fungiside -- professor mixed together sulfur and
                                                                lime to keep students from eating grapes.

        4.  Ascomycetes - (sac fungi) - Largest of the Fungal Phylums
                a.  Yeast - single celled microscopic
                b.  Rust - grows on grain and wheat (orange powdery)
                c.  Smut - grows on grain. (black powdery)
                d.  Truffle - tennis ball size and is black; grows underground; tastes good; very pricey.
                e.  Morrell - Has distinctive sponge like cap - very tasty - grow wild in many parts of US
                f.  Mildew - likes damp places
                g.  Ergot - grows in grain and rye; as it grows in rye it produces LSD

        5.  Basidiomycetes - true mushroom; club fungi; most common mushrooms
                 *    A mushroom has 98% of water.
                 *    Mushrooms grow in a ring-like pattern -- Fairy Ring

        6.  Deuteromycetes - Imperfect fungi; molds;
                secrete antibiotics to ward off bacteria from their food source
                source of many of our antibiotics.

        Lichen - Made of two organisms a green algae and fungus
                    They are symbiotes = both organism benefit from working together
                    Grows in harsh habitats; very cold or very hot
                    Fungus is getting excess food from algae
                    Algae is getting water from fungus
                    * Very important in erosion

      Differences Between Plants and Fungi:
        1.  Fungi has no chloroplasts, chlorophyll, and cannot photosynthesize.
        2.  Fungi has no leaves.
        3.  no roots.
        4.  no stem.
        5.  no flower.
        6.  no seeds.
        7.  The cell wall of a plant is made of cellulose; cell wall of fungi is made of chiten.

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PLANTS
     Most of us can recognize a plant fairly quickly because of the following features:
        1.    Leaves
        2.    Roots
        3.    Chlorophyll and the ability to photosynthesize
        4.    Most have flowers
        5.    Seeds

     Actually that is over simplified, but a good starting point.  Plants have been on Earth for
500 million years, and have evolved into a myriad of forms.   Plants evolved from the chlorophyta algae.

   Simple Plants
        The first plants to evolve were the simple plants.  They are typified by being small.  An example of
the simple plants are the mosses.  Two key features of simple plants is that they are Non-vascular and that
they have no roots.  Non-vascular means they have no transport tubes within them. This is why they are
small they are unable to get the water up any higher.  The lack of roots also contributes to their small size.

    Higher Plants
    The higher plants evolved about 400 million years ago.   They are also called the  Vascular plants those
that have transport tubes inside them, are more advanced.  There are two type of vascular tissues, Xylem
and Pholem.  The Xylem carries materials up, and the Pholem carries materials down.
    Another key feature that the higher plants developed was roots.  As plants grew taller it was imperative
to have a strong anchorage system to keep them from falling over.
    Three important functions of Roots:
        1.    Anchorage
        2.    Absorption
        3.    Storage

    *    Transpiration
                In order to get the material to the tops of the plant.  The plant depends on the process of transpiration.
As the water in the leaves heats up and evaporates it pulls the next water molecule in the plant upward.   This gives
the plant a constant upward movement of materials.

    A good example of a early vascular plant is the fern.  The fern has no seeds, but uses spores.  The spores are
found on the under side of the fern’s leaf.  When the fern first sprouts it is called Crozier or Fiddle head.  A frond
is the fern leaf, and the sori is the spore packet on the underside of the frond.

        Seed Plants
            These higher plant are more evolved than the seedless plants.  They are now found in two distinct groups.
 The first seedless plants developed about 280 mya.

        The Two Types of Seed Plants:
            1.  Gymnosperms - evolved about 280 mya;
                                            Gymnosperm means "naked seed" the seeds are exposed.
                a.  Cycads
                b.  Ginko - kind of tree and can handle harsh environments.
                c.  Conifers - cone-bearing tree -- oldest living organism is the Bristle Cone Pine;
                                    over 5,000 years old.
                                     The male pine cones are at the end of the trees and the female pine cones
                                    are found further in to be protected.

          2.  Angiosperms - evolved 120 m. yrs. old
                                        Angiosperm means "Covered Seeds" and are flowering plants
                                        90% of today's plants are Angiosperms
                                        Angiosperms produce flowers and part of a flower is the fruit which
                                        covers and protects the seeds.

        You should be able to Label the following parts of a flower:
 

Petals - Used to attract pollinators  Anther - Where the pollen grains are stored (male)  Stigma - Where the pollen grains land (female)  Pistol - The collective term for all female parts  Ovary - Place where seed are kept, and protected also called the fruit. (female)  Filament-Holds up the anther so pollinators will pick up pollen. (male)  Stamen - Collective name for all male parts.  Sepals - Outer covering of unopened bud, protects petals  Style - Connecting tube from Stigma to ovary.  Pollen grains travel down it to fertilize the seed. (female)

        1.    Monocots (Monocotyledon) have 1 seed leaf example corn.

        2.    Dicots  (Dicotyledons) have 2 seed leafs example, beans.
 

    * The definition of a Fruit - anything that has seeds.

    *  Why would a plant want to make a fruit?  Answer:   To help disperse the seeds.

    The three main ways of carrying out seed dispersal are:

            1.    Animals example sticker is carried on dogs coat or apple seed is eaten and carried
                    by horse, to be deposited later.
            2.    Wind a good example is the dandelion whose seeds are carried and scattered by
                    the wind.
            3.    Water a good example is the coconut, when it fall the water will carry it to and deposit
                    it on the shore of another island..

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ANIMALS
    As diverse as the plants, animals have also adapted and evolved into a myriad of species.  The animal kingdom is divided into nine phyla.

    1.    Chordata - These are organisms that have a vertebra or backbone, like humans,
                            mammals, fish, reptiles, birds, amphibians, etc...

    2.    Arthropods - This is the largest phylum of animals.  Over 3/4 of all animals fall into this
                                category.  They all have a hard exoskeleton.  Some examples are insects,
                                spiders, crustaceans (crabs, shrimp, crayfish), centipedes, millipedes, etc....

    3.    Mollusca - These organism are all characterized by having a three distinct body regions:
                            a muscular foot, head, and visceral mass, most also have a shell.
                            Prime examples are: snail, oyster, clam, slug, squid, octopus, scallop, etc ...

    4.    Platyhelminthes - The flat worms, they are characterized by being flat.  Examples would
                            be: tape worm, fluke, and planaria.
                      Tapeworm - parasite; lives in small intestine - soft; each section is a
                            proglottid - egg case; feeds on digested food.

    5.    Aschelminthes - The round worms, they are characterized by being round.  Most of the
                            round worms are parasites in other organisms.  The round worms live in the
                            soil, water, plants and animals.  While the Arthropods may have the most
                            number of species, the roundworms have the most sheer numbers of individuals.
                            It has been claimed that if you dissolve away every thing in the world, rocks,
                            plants, and animals you could still see the outline of all of the terrain as well as
                            the outline of the plants and animals.  Some good examples of round worms are:
                            heartworm, filaria, pinworm, hookworm etc...

                      Pinworm - found in the large intestine; small children normally get them;
                                            female lays eggs around the anus at night while child is resting
                                            and holding still - use flashlight to check to see if they have it;
                                            Scotch Tape Test

                      Horsehair Worm - attacks roaches and crickets

                      Filaria Worm:
                                a.  Heartworm - eggs are in the blood and are transmitted from one dog
                                                            to another by mosquitoes.
                                b.  Elephartiasis - tropics; transmitted by mosquitoes; the worm wraps
                                                            around a lymph vessel and makes the leg swell.

                      Loa Loa - river blindness; lives near fast flowing streams; carried by fly that
                                            likes fast moving rivers; usually found in tropics - ½ of the adults in
                                           the area will go blind.

                      Dracunculis medinensis or the Winch Worm - found in the tropics; can grow
                                            up to three feet long; gets to you by a cut; leaves beneath the surface
                                            of the skin.

                       Hookworm

    6.    Annelida -   The segmented worms, are characterized by having segments.  These are the
                            most advanced of the three phyla of worms.  Two examples would be the
                            earthworm and the leech.

    7.    Echinoderms - The spiny skinned animals, they are characterized by having a spiny skin.
                            Examples would be the sea star (incorrectly called starfish), sand dollar, sea
                            urchin, and sea cucumber etc ......

    8.    Porifera - The sponges, they are a dead end and very primitive as for as evolving goes.
                            Aquatic - sessile - located - attached to bottom.
                            Many Colors - have radical symmetry

    9.    Cnidarians - They used to be known as coelenterates or the hollow gut animals, however,
                            the characteristic of having a hollow gut was not shared by all.  So, they chose
                            a different characteristic that all members of the phylum share cnidocyst (stinging
                            cells).  The main examples of this phylum are jelly fish, Portuguese Man-of-War,
                            coral, and sea anemones.
                          *    2 BODY SHAPES:
                                        1.  Polyp - tentacles are always up or out; sessile
                                        2.  Medusa - tentacles are always down; free floating

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TISSUE 

Organizational Levels of the Human Body

    1.  Chemical
                a.  Atom - N,O,C,H
                b.  Molecular - 4 Main Organic Molecules:  lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids

    2.  Cellular -
                a.  organelles - pieces of the cell
                b.  cell

    3.  Tissue - several/group of similar cells working together to achieve a common goal.

    4.  Organ - several tissues working together to achieve a common goal.

    5.  Organism - several/all systems working together to achieve a common goal.

    6.  System - several organs working together to achieve a common goal.
 

    11 Major Systems of the Human Body:
        1.  Circulatory
        2.  Respiratory
        3.  Nervous
        4.  Muscular
        5.  Digestive
        6.  Reproductive
        7.  Endocrine
        8.  Lymphatic
        9.  Skeletal
      10.  Integumentary
      11.  Excretory

    Tissues:

     There are four main types of tissues in the human body:
                1.    epithelial
                2.    connective
                3.    muscle
                4.    nervous

        1.  Epithelial - body surfaces both inside and out
                                Example - skin, all surfaces of organs (inside & outside walls of the heart)
                                Has continuous layer of cells which is attached to underlying tissues
                                by the basement membrane.
           Function:
                    a.  Protection - it protects organs from doing damage to themselves & to one another
                    b.  Secretion - oils; usually a good thing ie. oil or mucous
                    c.  Excretion - getting rid of something ie. sweat
                    d.  Absorption - picks up nutrients in digestive system

            3 Basic Shapes of Epithelial Cells
                    a.  Squamous - flat
                    b.  Cuboidal - cube-shaped
                    c.  Columnar - elongated rectangles

            Epithelial Cellular Arrangement
                    a.  Simple - 1 layer.
                    b.  Stratified - multilayered
                    c.  Pseudostratified - strictly columnar - gives the appearance of layers intertwined.

            Goblet Cells - only found columnar - secrete mucous
            Cilia - columnar - creates movement.
            Basement Membrane - holds epithelial tissues to cells and tissue underneath.

        2. Connective - most abundant

            Function
                    1.  Binds one cell to another.
                    2.  Supports - bones
                    3.  Protection -bones
                    4.  Hematopoiesis - production of blood
                    5.  Fat storage

            Connective Tissue is composed of 3 Types of Fibers:
                        *      all three fibers are made by Fibroblast cells

                        a.  Collagen - strong; doesn't stretch much
                                            the more there is the stronger the tissue
                                            thick and unbranched.
                        b.  Elastin - thinner and smaller
                                          elastic
                                          thin and branched
                        c.  Reticular - form of a matrix; branched.
 

            6 Types of Connective Tissue:

                    1.  Adipose - store fat

                    2.  Bone - living tissue
                          Terms to know
                                    Osteocyte - bone cell
                                    Lamellae - individual connective circles.
                                    Haversian Canal - contains capillaries and nerves.
                                    Lacuna - where osteocytes are found.
                                    Canaliculi - carry nutrients to osteocytes

                    3. Cartilage - cover the ends of every bone
                              Chondroyte - actual cartilage cell.
                              Lacuna - where chondrocytes are found

                                        Function:    a.  shock absorber
                                                          b.  reduce friction
                                                          c.  Ossification - process of cartilage turning into bone

                                    Two kinds of cartilage:
                                        a.  Elastic - contains many elastin fibers, looks like its full of spider webs
                                        b.  Hyaline - contains a lot of collagen - looks smooth

                    4. Dense Fiberous Tissue - collagen fibers running parallel to one another
                                                              strongest tissue
                                        a.  Ligament - connects bone to bone
                                        b.  Tendons - connects bone to muscle

                    5. Areolar - loose connective tissue
                                       joins epithelial tissue to underlying tissues
                                       contains many collagen and elastin fibers

                     6. Blood  4 parts
                            a.  Erythrocytes = Red Blood Cells - carry oxygen, Anucleate
                            b.  Leucocytes = White Blood Cells - bigger, fight infection, have nucleus
                            c.  Thrombocytes = Platelets - helps clot blood
                            d.  Plasma

        3. Muscle Tissue -  Humans have average of 602 muscles
                                            can only contract (get smaller)
                                            Usually work in pairs
           Function:
                    To cause movement - perform work by contracting

            3 Types of Muscle Tissue
                    a.  Skeletal - attached to bones
                                        multinucleated
                                        voluntary
                                        has striations
                                        unbranched

                    b.  Smooth - internal organs
                                        involuntary
                                        no striations
                                        has a single nucleus

                    c.  Cardiac - heart
                                        has striations (faintly)
                                        is branched
                                        single nucleus
                                        involuntary
                                        intercalated disc - found at ends of each cells
                                                                   allows for cardiac impulse to move from cell to cell

        4. Nervous Tissue

            Function:
                        a.  to carry information
                        b.  to send information
                        c.  to receive
                        d.  to process information

                *    Neuron = nerve cell

            3 Types of Neurons
                    a.  Sensory - picks up and sends information
                    b.  Motor - receives signal from brain and stimulates a muscle
                    c.  Connecting - connects the brain to motor neurons on sensory neurons to brain

            Terms to Know:
              Dendrites - used to receive incoming stimulation
              Soma - cell body
              Axon - carries the signal away from the soma
              Terminal Brush - At the end of the axon, the electrical signal is turned into chemical
              Synapse - gap between 2 neurons, no 2 neurons ever touch
              Myelin - fatty substance secreted by Schwann cells, it insulates the axon
              Myelinated - when the axon is covered by myelin, nerve impulse is faster
              Unmelinated - the axons without the myelin, nerve impulse is slower
              Glial Cells - support and nourish neurons

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

     Digestion - The process by which food is broken down into particles that are small enough
                        to be absorbed and used by the cells.

     2 Kinds of Digestion:

            1. Mechanical - the physical breakdown; example chewing.

            2. Chemical - when enzymes or digestive juices are used to breakdown food.

     2 Areas of the Digestive System:

            1. Alimentary Canal - food actually passes through these organs; 26 ft long.

            2. Accessory Organs - food doesn't pass through; assist in digestive process.

    Mouth - This is where digestion begins (mechanical and chemical)

            *    Mastication =  chewing

    Teeth - 32 adult teeth;
                    we have baby teeth (deciduous) because our mouths grow;
                    we aren't born with any teeth so it doesn't hurt when mothers breast feed us;
                    we have wisdom teeth to replace lost teeth,

     Tongue:
              3 Major Functions:
                    1.  Taste
                    2.  Manipulate food - the bumps on the tongue help manipulate food.
                    3.  Swallow

              4 Major Taste:
                    1.  Sweet - found at the tip of the tongue,
                                    so that we can tastes something new, if it’s sweet; it’s probably contains
                                    sugar.  Sugar is the basic fuel for cells, so the new food is probably OK.
                    2.  Salt - found on the front side of the tongue.  It is important to detect salt  because
                                   it is a necessary nutrient.  Have to taste dirt or lick rocks to Salt Licks.
                    3.  Sour - found on the back side of the tongue, protective - to prevent you from
                                    swallowing something bad.
                    4. Bitter - found on the back of tongue, most poisons are bitter and they can still be
                                    gagged back up.

              2 Minor Taste:
                    1.  Metallic - Taste iron in blood, too much heavy metal is bad for us.
                    2.  Alkaline - poisons that are not bitter.

    Salivary Glands (produce 2 things):
                   1.  Saliva - moistens the food which aids in swallowing;
                                    contains Amylase - enzyme- breaks down starch into sugar.
                    2.  Mucin - thick, ropey mucus which helps hold food together.

            3 Pair of Salivary Glands
                    1.  Sublingual - under the tongue - mainly secretes saliva.
                    2.  Submandibular - under jaw - secretes saliva and mucin.
                    3.  Parotid - biggest; outside of jaw; secrete saliva.

          * Deglutition = Swallowing

            4 Steps:
                    1.  Teeth/Tongue/Salavary Glands form the food into a bolus - a clump/wad of food
                    2.  The tongue moves bolus up and back to the back of the throat.
                    3.  As the tongue moves up it causes the Uvula (dangly thing in the back of the throat)
                        and soft palate to close off the nasal cavity.
                    4.  The epiglottis closes off the trachea when the tongue moves up.

    Esophagus - 12 inches
                          Food tube
                          Lined with epithelial tissues - lots of goblet cells which secrete mucous to help
                                                                    food slide down.

    Stomach - gastro (latin) - its main function is storage of food
                                            it can hold about 2 liters
                                            it can be trained to stretch and shrink
                                            it is located on the left side
                                            food will be in stomach for about four hours.
                                            carries out mechanical digestion
                                            absorbs 3 items:
                                                                    1.  Water
                                                                    2.  Sugar
                                                                    3.  Alcohol
                                            digestion of protein begins in stomach by hydrochloric acid
                                            pH of stomach acid is 1
                                            stomach also produces mucous which protects stomach lining
                                            stomach growls because walls of stomach grind against each other
                                        Peristalsis also occurs in stomach.
                                            most ulcers form in the small intestine
                                            80% of the stomach ulcers are caused by bacteria - Archaebacteria
                                            stomach turns red when you are angry; turns white when relaxed
                                            turns red when eating spicy food
                                        Heartburn - caused by acid splashing into esophagus.
                                        Dr. Beaumont - 1820, army surgeon on edge of frontier - Michigan
                                            took care of guy with gunshot wound.

            4 Regions of the Stomach:
                        1.  Cardiac - where esophagus joins to stomach.; close to heart.
                        2.  Fundic - traps gas.
                        3.  Body - main region of the stomach.
                        4.  Pyloric - where stuff exits into the small intestine

            Sphincter - a ring like muscle * the stomach has two (2)
                        1.    Cardiac Sphincter - entrance to stomach; weakens as you age.
                        2.    Pyloric Sphincter - exit from stomach
 

     Pancreas - located dorsal (behind) to the stomach
                        it is an accessory organ
              2 Functions:
                                    1.  Makes hormones
                                    2.  Produces Digestive enzymes
                                                a.  Pancreatic Amylase - breaks down starch
                                                b.  Pancreatic Protease - breaks down protein
                                                c.  Pancreatic Lipase - breaks down lipids/fats
                                         pancreatic enzymes are dumped into the small intestine
                                            through the Sphincter of Oddi

     Liver - largest internal organ
                 humans have 2 lobes
                 it is located on the right side of the body
                average liver weighs about three pounds
                Liver has the ability to regenerate or grow back

                3 Functions:
                            1.  Detoxify the blood.
                            2.  Store glycogen
                            3.  Site of most metabolic reactions

                Bile - waste product of reactions in the liver
                                has a digestive function
                                aids in digestion of fat by emulsifying (coatings) the fat
                                is dark green.
                Gall Bladder - stores extra bile
                                             found underneath the liver
                Gall Stones - crystalline cholesterol

     Small Intestine -  major organ of digestion
                                  This is where nutrients are being absorbed
                                  20 ft long
                                  you cannot live without it
                                  peristalsis and reverse peristalsis occur here
                                Lumen - passageway through a tube
                                villi - finger-like projections on the lining of the small intestine
                                             functional unit of the small intestine
                                             increase surface area 1,000 times
                                             increase surface area to absorb more nutrients
              2 Functions:
                                1.  Complete Digestion
                                2.  Absorb Nutrients

              3 Sections:
                            1.  Duodenum - is about 1 foot long
                                                     has thick walls because this where stomach acid is dumped
                                                     where most ulcers occur
                                                     mechanical digestion is completed hear
                            2.  Jejunum - 7 feet long
                                                 where most nutrients are absorbed
                            3.  Ileum - 12 feet long
                                             absorbs nutrients not absorbed by Jejunum
                                             as you leave the Ileum you enter the large intestine
                                     Ileocecal valve - one-way door out of the small intestine & into large

    Large Intestine - 5 feet long
                                 has a bigger diameter than small intestine
                                 starts on right side of body
           3 Functions:
                        1.  Reabsorb water
                        2.  Produce & absorb vitamin K (E.Coli makes Vit. K, it is needed for blood clotting)
                        3.  Removal of indigestible material (fiber is indigestible).

           5 Regions:
                        1.  Cecum - receiving pouch.
                        2.  Appendix - slight immune function
                                               was thought at one time that it was used to digest raw meat or plant matter
                        3.  Colon - big portion of the large intestine
                                          place where most water and vitamin K are absorbed.
                        4.  Rectum - holding area before elimination
                        5.  Anus - exit from digestive system
                                        2 sphincters

           Feces - solid waste
                          food in small intestine is green (bile) so what color is feces?  Why?

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

      2 Kinds of Respiration

            1. Cellular - glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport
            2.  External - breathing

      Function of External Respiration - eliminate waste gas (CO2) and obtain oxygen.

    Nasal Cavity - Prepares air for lungs 3 ways it: filters, moisten and warms air.
         1.  Filters - it cleans the air 3 ways:
                a.  Nose Hair - stops large particles.
                b.  Mucous - nasal cavity is lined with epithelial tissue with goblet cells; dust sticks to
                                    mucous and there are lots of corners to turn.
                c.  Cilia - lungs have cilia to clean out.
        2.  Moisten Air - the air is moistened by the mucous being produced
        3.  Warms Air - blood vessels are near the surface and they radiate heat into air.

    Sinuses - cavities in skull; makes skull lighter and and resonance to your voice
                    there are 4 pairs of sinuses that open into nasal cavity.

    Pharanx - back of throat; common passage way for air and food.

    Larynx - voice box/Adam’s apple; creates sound.
           Vocal Cords - produces sound; muscle tissue; air passes over and makes them vibrate.
                                    by contracting them to different degrees it changes the tone of the sound
           Laryngitis - inflammation of vocal cords.
           Glottis - opening to larynx;
           Epiglottis covers the glottis

    Trachea-  Windpipe; it is held open constantly so that air can flow freely;
                        held open by 20 "C" shaped pieces of cartilage;
                        they are "C" shaped so that food would not get hung up as it is passing down the
                        esophagus which lies immediately dorsal to the trachea.  The esophagus can expand
                        into trachea if it needs to when you have taken too big of a bite.

        Tracheotomy - First aid procedure where a slit is made in the trachea to bypass a blockage
                        and allow the patient to get air.

    Bronchi - branches that come off trachea.

    Lungs - You have 2 lungs the right lung is larger because heart takes up space on the left side of
                    the chest.
    Alveoli - tiny air sacs inside the lungs
                 - There are 300 million of them
                 - functional unit of the respiratory system
                 - This is where the gas exchange occurs;
                 - They increase surface area, if all of the alveoli in the lungs were spread out, they would
                        take up ½ of a tennis court.
                -  The gas exchange occurs thru diffusion.  As oxygen poor blood moves past the alveoli
                    the O₂ diffuses out of the alveoli and into the blood and the CO₂ diffuses out of the
                    blood and into the alveoli to be exhaled.

     Diaphragm - muscle that controls breathing; as it drops (contracts),
                    creates vacuum in the chest cavity, causing you to inhale.

    Air Volumes
        Sneeze - volume of air force through upper respiratory track to clear it.
        Cough - clearing lower respiratory track - trachea and lungs.
                     - winds in back of the throat have been clocked at 200 mph.
        Laughing/Crying - short bursts of air.
        Hiccup - a spasm of the diaphragm - "hic" - air rushing in; "up" - epiglottis closing,
                    prevents alveoli popping due to air coming into fast.
        Hyperventilation - when you breath too fast and get an overabundance of oxygen.
        Yawn - purpose is to get an extra burst of oxygen; is contagious.

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:  Internal Regulation

    Two systems control our body; Nervous System which receives input from external world reacting to our environment, and the Endocrine System which is responsible for internal regulation.  The endocrine system is made up of GLANDS which are ductless and produce substances which are secreted into the bloodstream, these substances or chemicals are hormones.  Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine tissue which affect another tissue or cell.

 TWO METHODS OF CONTROLLING HORMONES:
1.  Negative Feedback - the end product going back or feeding back to turn off an earlier step.  Most Common Type of Control.
2.  Positive Feedback - the excess end product goes back to enhance or increase the production of the end product.

GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:
GLANDS LOCATION HORMONES ACTION
PITUITARY- a.  Anterior Lobe:(Six Hormones) At the brain stem
  GROWTH HORMONE(GH) Stimulates growth of bone; too much causes giantism; too little causes dwarfism
  PROLACTIN Stimulates milk production
  THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH) Controls Thyroid
  ANDRENOCORTICOTROPIC(ACTH) Stimulates adrenal gland
  FOLLICULAR STIMULATINGHORMONE (FSH) Stimulates production of eggs & sperm.
  LUTENIZING HORMONE(LH) Causes release of egg & progesterone release in female & release production of testosterone in male.
GLANDS  LOCATION HORMONES ACTION
b.  Posterior Lobe:(two hormones)
  ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) Regulates size of efferent arteriole open; controls water excretion.
  OXYTOSIN Causes smooth muscle contraction (uterus, mammary glands)

Note:  Pituitary gland is known as the "Master Gland".  It is the size of a pea and produces only small amounts
           of chemicals in the two lobes.

GLANDS  LOCATION HORMONES ACTION
THYROID (butterfly shaped) Neck THYROXINE(most impt.) Regulates metabolism, or how fast your body utilizes food/energyNote: You need IODINE to make thyroxine.
  CALCITONIN Deposits Calcium on bone. Regulates amount of calcium in blood; calcium is needed for musc. Contraction.  Women need more.

Note:   Thyroid gland diseases; too active thyroid causes eyes to bulge, thinness, too active.  Too low thyroid
causes obesity, sluggishness.  SUPER low thyroid causes CREATINISM, severe mental retardedness.  Iodine is required for production of hormones.
*Iodine found in seafood, green leafy veg., or living near sea helps.  Lack of iodine - swollen thyroid or
GOITER.  In the Midwest/plains states away from the sea you’ll find high occurrence of goiters.

GLANDS  LOCATION HORMONES ACTION
PANCREAS Behind the stomach GLUCAGON(produced by ALPHA CELLS) Causes liver to release glucose; Blood sugar rises
  INSULIN(Produced by BETA CELLS) Tries to place glucose in cells; Blood sugar drops

Note:   Pancreas functions 95% in exocrine (digestive) system producing digestive enzymes, and 5% in
endocrine system.  There are two hormone-producing cells, the alpha & beta.  There are more alpha
cells.  Beta cells found in the ISLE OF LANGERHANS.

DIABETES - Lack of insulin.  Symptoms: thirst, frequent urination, sugar in urine.  In kidney, the PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES absorb the glucose.
GLANDS  LOCATION HORMONES ACTION
ADRENAL Top of kidney (both kidneys) ADRENALINE Prepares body for emergencies by:  Increased heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, faster breath.  TUNNEL VISION, TIME SLOWED. Superpower
  TESTOSTERONE(low level)(male sex hormone) Controls hair growth; both sexes produce this.
Note:  Adrenaline causes "fight or flight" - the body prepares itself for emergencies.  If all 600 muscles work at the same time, you
  do usual tasks.

GLANDS  LOCATION HORMONES ACTION
PARATHYROID(S) Inside Thyroid PARATHOROME(PTH) Regulates levels of calcium and release calcium from the bone.
THYMUS Behind Sternum(breastbone)  Major part of immune system
Note:  Always larger in young because kids are not immune to anything yet; they are born sterile.

GLANDS  LOCATION HORMONES ACTION
GONADS MALE: TESTIS In scrotum TESTOSTERONE Causes secondary sex characteristics.
Note:  Can reproduce with only one testis.  The testosterone is secreted prior  to birth.  At puberty (age 13-15) gonads produce lots of testosterone which causes secondary characteristics:  The voice gets deeper (larynx swells) body build gets larger, bones & muscles enlarge, hair increases on genitals, underarms, facial & chest.  As testosterone level increases, hair starts to recede.  Aggressive behavior is also a sign of puberty.  Skin gets thicker.  Too much testosterone can cause violence.  A EUNIC is a castrated male.  Dr.  FAUSTUS - injected dog testis into himself to become young.  -- IT DIDN’T WORK!

FEMALE:
OVARIES(Eunuch) ESTROGEN Causes secondary sex characteristics
 PROGESTERONE "Pregnancy hormone"keeps uterine lining intact;
Note:  Can reproduce with only one; puberty in females starts at age 10-12

ESTROGEN:
 These secondary sex characteristics are:  auxiliary hair, breast development, mammary glands, enlarged hips & thighs (to prepare for child birth) -- (this is increasing adipose)

PROGESTERONE:
 If there is no progesterone, the uterus lining sheds itself; in other words, if the egg is fertilized, it produces its own progesterone, thus lining the uterus.

The difference in the two sex hormones is that the estrogen lacks three atoms that testosterone has.

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SKELETAL SYSTEM

     4 Functions
            1.  to protect
            2.  supports and gives shape
            3.  Hematopoiesis - blood protection
            4.  to aid in movement

     - On average, adults have 206 bones
     - Infants have 350 bones because they haven't fussed together .

 Parts of a Long Bone
        Epiphysis - enlarged end of the bone
             1.  Proximal (close) - closer to center of body
             2.  Distal - the end farther away from the center of the body.
        Diaphysis - shaft of bone.
        Compact Bone - all of diaphysis made up of this hard dense bone.  It also covers up the
                    sponge bone giving it more strength
        Spongy Bone - porous hard bone found in the epiphysis of long bones and inside flat bones
                    covered with compact bone.
        Periosteum - a thin sheath of tissue that surrounds bone; muscles attach to it.
        Process - a hole or bump on bone; where the arteries or veins enter the bones.

     2 Kinds of Bone Marrow:
            1.  Yellow Marrow - found in hollow center of diaphysis.  Makes mainly WBC's
            2.  Red Marrow - found in spongy bone. Makes mainly RBC's

     2 Elements that make bone hard:
            1.  Calcium - makes bone strong , and is needed for muscular contraction
            2.  Phosphorous  - needed for DNA and ATP.
        *    The skeleton acts as a reservoir for both of these minerals

    Bone Tissue

        1. Osteocytes    Bone cells
               2 Kinds of Osteocytes:
                    1.  Osteoblast - found on outside of bone (underneath periostem) - deposits calcium.
                    2.  Osteoclast - found on inside of bone next to marrow - releases calcium.
        2.  Lacunae - Depression which contains osteocytes.
        3.  Haversian Canal - Contain blood vessels to supply the surrounding osteocytes with O₂
                    and nutrients
        4.  Canaliculi - tiny vessels that carry the O₂ and nutrients from the haversian canals to the
                    osteocytes
        5.  Lamellae - The osteocytes are arranged in concentric circles around a haversian canal and
                            each circle is called a lamellae.

    Bones of the Body

    Skull - 8 cranium bones (protects the brain)
             14 facial bones  (Lower Jaw = Mandible)
    Hyoid bone -  protects larynx
    Vertebral column made of individual vertebra (bones) and intervertebral disc (cartilage)
           7 cervical (neck)
          12 thoracic (chest)
           5 lumbar
    Sacrum  - 5 fused bones at the end of vertebral column makes up part of pelvic girdle
    Coccyx  -  tail bone
    Ribs 12 pair
                    7 pair of True ribs.  A true rib is attached directly to the sternum.
                    5 pair of False ribs.  A false ribs does not attach directly to the sternum.
                            2 pair of the false ribs are called floating ribs since they do not connect to
                            sternum at all.
    Pectoral Girdle -  These are the bones that allow the arms to attach to the axial skeleton
                A.    Clavicle - collar bone (most commonly broken bone)
                B.    Scapula - shoulder blade
    Humerus  -  upper arm
    Radius - one of the two lower arm bones, rotates around the Ulna, found next to thumb
    Ulna  -  one of the two lower arm bones
    Hand
         Carpals - 8 wrist bones
         Metacarpals - 5 hand bones
         Phalanges -14 finger bones
    Pelvic Girdle -  These are the bones that allow the legs to attach to the axial skeleton
        Ilium - Hip bone
        Ishium - butt bone
        Pubic - behind pubis
    Femur - thigh bone, hardest bone in the body to break
    Tibia - large lower leg bone (shin)
    Fibula - small thin long lower leg bone
    Foot
         Tarsals - 7 ankle bones
         Metacarpals - 5 foot bones
        Phalanges - 14 toes

    Terms

    Fracture - any type of broken bone.
    Compound Fracture - broken bone and it is sticking through skin
    Ligament - connects bone to bone
    Tendon - connects bone to muscle
    Cartilage - covers the ends of all bones, provides cushion and reduces friction between bones

     Kinds of Joints: A joint is where two bones meet
        1.  Ball and Socket - hip, shoulder
        2.  Hinge - elbow, knee, fingers
        3.  Pivot - vertebral column
        4.  Gliding - wrist
        5.  Immovable - pelvic area, skull

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EXCRETORY SYSTEM

     Function:  To remove toxins and waste from body.

        4 Means To Remove Waste;
            1.  Skin - sweat
            2.  Lungs - CO2
            3.  Large Intestine - indigestible material
            4.  Kidney

     Kidneys:
              2 MAIN FUNCTIONS:
                    1.  Filters Blood
                    2.  Maintains the water balance

            Characteristics of the kidney:
                1.  brownish red
                2.  bean shaped
                3.  is the easiest organ to transplant
                4.  can be eaten
                5.  they are located on either side of the vertebrae column
                6.  embedded in the dorsal abdominal wall
                7.  they are also described as being Retroperitoral meaning they are located behind
                        the peritoneum.
                8.  the left kidney sit 2cm higher than the right kidney so that the blood pressure is
                        high enough to make kidneys a little more effective.
                9.  Adrenal Gland - sits on top of the kidney (in humans).

        Kidney has a Concave and Convex side.  The concave are sunk in side faces medially
            The area which is sunk in is referred to as the Hilium, and there are three vessels of
            importance connected to this area

            2 Blood Vessels:
                1.  Renal Artery - Carries blood from the heart into the kidney
                2.  Renal Vein - The blood, that has now been filtered, leaves the kidney thru them

            The Ureter - This tube which also is connected to the hilium carries urine to bladder

        4 Regions of the Kidney:
                1.  Renal Capsule - outer covering - very thin
                2.  Renal Cortex - outer most region  - where nephrons are located
                3.  Renal Medulla - tubes to carry urine away from nephron toward pelvis
                4.  Renal Pelvis - hollow area of the kidney where urine is drained into prior to leaving

        Nephron - functional unit of the kidney (1 million per kidney)

           2 Regions:
                1.  Renal Carpuscle
                                                a.  Glomerulus - mass of capillaries
                                                b.  Bowman’s Capsule - collects the plasma that is squeezed out

             How it works - Blood enters the renal corpuscle through afferent arteriole; it moves
                            through glomerulus and leaves through efferent arteriole, however the efferent
                            arteriole has a smaller diameter than the afferent, so pressure builds up in
                            glomerulus, forcing some plasma in the blood out.  The plasma which contains
                            both nutrients and waste is collected by the Bowman's capsule and sent on to
                            the Renal Tubules.

                2.  Renal Tubules
                                        a.  Proximal Convoluted (twisted) Tubule - reabsorb H₂O, glucose,
                                                    amino acids, and vitamins.
                                        b.  Loop of Henle - reabsorb water and some salt.
                                        c.  Distal Convoluted Tubule - picks up more water and minerals.
                                        d.  Collecting Duct - more water is absorbed the remaining material
                                                    is now urine.
                        The urine flows down the collecting ducts and thru the Renal medulla into the
                        Renal Pelvis and out the Ureter on its way to the Urinary Bladder.

    Urine
        Is yellow because of urea and uric acid.
        The average urine output is 2.5 liters a day
        45 gallons of blood is filtered a day.
        Urine is 95% water

    Micturation - technical term for urination.

    Antidiuretic Hormone - (ADH) - is produced by pituitary gland in brain.

         Function:  To regulate the size of the efferent arteriole.  The hormone keeps the arteriole
                            from constricting.
                - If you have a low ADH the efferent arteriole constricts which increases pressure in
                        the glomerulus, urine output increases.
                - If you have a high ADH, urine output decreases.

    Ureter - 10 inches long;
                   leads away from kidney toward urinary bladder.
                   moves urine along by peristalsis.

    Urinary Bladder - hollow distenable organ (stretchable)
                - the first urge to urinate comes when you have about 150 mL of urine
                - at about 300 mL of urine in the bladder it becomes painful
                - the average bladder can hold 600 mL

    Urethra - exit from bladder to outside
            - Female urethra - 2 inches in length
            - Male urethra - 8 inches in length

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Reproduction:
 

Function:   Procreation (make more of species) – exchange genetic information

Gonads:

Major organs of repro.

Male: testis

Female: ovary

 Symbols:

= Mars/shield and sword; Male

= Aphrodite – mirror; Female

 Male:

Testes = orchid = orchidectomy

2 Testes – only need one
Testes Produce 2 Things:

   a.Sperm – (Gametes)
   b.Testosterone – secondary characteristics
 

Scrotum – sack contains testes

          keep testes cool (95oF)
Parts:

Somniferous Tubules – (tiny tubules) each is 2ft. long – 700 ft in each testis.

                    Sperm production is being carried out

          Sperm – 100 million made a day

(diagram)
head – chromosomes found

acrosome – digestive cap

Sperm stored – in the epidichymes Glycogen is a food source produced in the

          Epidichymus.

Vas Deferens – sperm duct

Vasectomy – cut this tube

Seminal Vesicle – secrets alkaline fluid because vagina is acidic; contains

          protesgladin which causes contraction; high in fructose to feed sperm.

Prostate Gland – (golf ball size) – add more fluid; contains more hormones to

          stimulate sperm movement; fluid has milky look and is alkaline.

Urethra

Bulbourethra – makes lubricating fluid; base of penis

Semen – the fluid released during ejaculation; milky appearance ;

                    200 million sperm cells in each ejaculation
                    pH of 7.5
                    2-6 ml or ½ teaspoon
                    can live 2-3 days in female
 

Penis:

Organ through which both urine and semen are transmitted.
 

Erect – must be to deposit sperm; engorged with blood

Erectile Tissues:

                  1.Corpora cavernosa
                  2.Corpus spingiosum

          Because elongated and enlarged during erection

          Glans Penis – enlarged end of the penis; very sensitive

          Prepuce – "Foreskin" – outer covering of penis

          Circumcision – removal of the prepuce

          Orgasm – end of intercourse

                    Burst of endorphines
                    Blood vessel diameters in Penis go back to normal
                    Emission – semen being dumped into the urethra
                    Ejaculation – rhythmic contraction of Erectile tissue
 
 

Female Ovary:

        1.Estrogen and Progesterone

          Oogenesis – production of eggs before birth 400,000

        2.Egg

          Follicle – releases the egg when it bursts; contains the egg.

          Ovulation – release of egg.

          Corpus luteum – follicle changes to this after ovulation

          It releases progesterone.

          Fallopian Tube – egg duct; carries the egg, lined with cilia

                    Infundibulum – funneled end of fallopian tube
                    Cilia creates a slight vacuum
                    Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube

          Uterus – (womb) – fetus will develop

          Cervix – part of uterus; opening from vagina to the uterus; extends into vagina

          Vagina – birth canal

          Rugae – ridges to help male

          Hymen – covers the vagina

          External Genitalia – (vulva)

                  a.Labia Majora – have hair; larger outer
                  b.Labia Minora – smaller; inner hair less

          Clitoris – anterior to Majora; has a prepuce

          Vestibule – enclosed by Labia Minora

                  1.Vagina – opening
                  2.Urethra – opening
                  3.Vestibular glands – Lubrication

(diagram)
Endometruim – lining of the uterus.

Contraception – prevention of conception

Page 916

AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

     Function:  To transport nutrients and oxygen to cells.

     HEART:
         The typical adult heart weighs 12 oz.
         It is considered to be the strongest muscle in the body.
         The average adult heart beats 80 times minute.  Lower heartbeat is considered good.
         The heart is found to slant to left in most people.
         In  24-hours the heart will pump 4,000 gallons of blood.

     ANATOMY OF THE HEART:
        Internal
        The 3-layers of the heart wall:
            1.  Epicardium - outermost layer - epithelial tissue.
            2.  Myocardium - thick part - heart muscle.
            3.  Endocardium - inside - epithelial tissue.

        Pericardium - sac around the heart - to prevent damage from rubbing against bones.
        Apex - the tip or pointed end of the heart
        Base - the top of the heart; where it is attached at the blood vessels.

     4 CHAMBERS OF THE HUMAN HEART:
        1.  Atria - 2 top chambers; single atrium; Latin for entrance; it receives blood.
        2.  Ventricles - 2 bottom chambers; are bigger than atria in muscle thickness; this is
                    because they have to get blood to rest of the body; left ventricle is larger than the right;
                    the right ventricle pushes blood to lungs; the left sends blood out to rest of the body.

    Septum - inner wall which separates ventricles.

     4 VALVES:
          2 kinds
            1.  Atrioventricular Valves - (A-V Valves) - between atrium and ventricles.
                    a.  Tricuspid - right A-V
                    b.  Bicuspid Valve - left A-V; can also be called mitral valve.

            2. Semilunar Valve - ventricles to body.
                    a.  Pulmonary Semilunar Valve - on right side.
                    b.  Aortic Semilunar Valve - leaves left ventricle into aorta.

            * The heart sound "lub dub" is made by the slamming shut of the heart valves.

            Papillary Muscles - muscle that project into ventricles.
           Chordae Tendonae - strings attached to A-V valves and papillary muscles.
            *    Functions:  is to prevent A-V valves from inverting.

      External
        Auricle - ear-like flap above the atrium, it is an extension of the atria
        Sulcus = groove.
             2 Sulu:
                1.  Atrioventricular Sulcus - found between atria and ventricles
                        runs all the way around the top of the heart separating the atria from the ventricles.
                2.  Interventricular Sulcus - between the ventricles; follows the septum.

     NUMBER OF CHAMBERS IN VERTEBRAE HEARTS:
          Fish - 2 chambers - 1 atrium/1 ventricle
          Amphibians - 3 chambers - 2 atria (separate)/1 ventricle
          Reptiles - 3 ½ chambers - 2 atria/1 ventricle with a slightly developed septum.
          Birds and Mammals - 4 chambers - 2 atria/2 ventricle

    CIRCULATION OF BLOOD THROUGH THE HEART:
        1.  Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via 3 vessels; coronary sinus, inferior Vena
                Cava, and superior Vena Cava; the coronary sinus drains heart muscle of blood.
        2.  Right atrium contracts and pushes blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
        3.  Right ventricle contract, the papillary muscles and chordae tendonae keep the tricuspid
                from folding back, and the blood is pushed through the pulmonary semilunar valve and
                into the pulmonary arteries on its way to the lungs.
        4.  The oxygenated blood returns to left atrium via 4 pulmonary veins.
        5.  Left atrium contracts and pushes blood through bicuspid valve into left ventricle.
        6.  The left ventricles contract, the papillary muscles and chordae tendonae keep the bicuspid
                from inverting and the blood is pushed through the aortic semilunar valve and into the
                aorta on the way to the body.

    Heart Disease Terms

        Ischemia - any muscle is not getting enough oxygen.
        Angina - pain associated with Ischemia.
        Angina Pectoralis - angina associated with the heart.
        Myocardial Infarction - death of the heart muscle - heart attack.
        Angioplasty - using a balloon to push stuff that clogs arteries down.
        Angiogram - technique of viewing the blood vessels of the heart to find blockages
        Aneurysm - thin or weak spot on artery and eventually blows out.

    Cardiac Conduction:
        SA Node - sinoatrial node - pacemaker of heart
                         - self-exciting - able to generate its own impulses
                         - dorsal wall of right atrium
                         - generates a heart impulse which is sent to both atria causing them to contract
                            simultaneously; the floor of the atria is insulated which prevents signal from
                            getting to ventricles.
        AV Node - atrioventricular node - between the right atrium and right ventricle
                                                                (floor of rt atrium)
                         - has small diameter this slows heart impulse down which allows atria to empty
       Bundle of His -  splits and runs down the septum;
                              - has large diameter (speeds signal backup)
                              - feeds into Purkinje fibers which branch off of the Bundle of His and
                                innervate the ventricles.

    Cardiac Output - the volume of blood pumped through the heart in one minute
                               -  average adult human pumps 5 quarts per minute (entire blood supply).
                               - 10 seconds - 1 liter of blood pumped
                               - 10 minutes - 20 gallons of blood pumped
                               - 10 hours - 1,500 gallons of blood pumped
                               - 10 years - 2 oil tankers can be filled
                               - lifetime - 500,000 tons

    Electrocardio Gram - (EKG) - see the diagram below
         P wave - depolarization of the atria (causes contraction of atria)
         QRS complex - depolarization of the ventricles (causes contraction of the ventricles)
         T wave - repolarization (recharging) of the ventricles
         *  The atrial repolarization is lost in QRS complex

    Arrythmia - irregular heartbeat
        1.  Tachycardia - abnormally fast heartbeat
        2.  Bradychordia - abnormally slow heartbeat
        3.  Flutter - 3 to 5 atrial contractions per one ventricle contraction
        4.  Fibrillation - word means quiver; 2 kinds:
                a.  Atrial Fibrillation - atria are quivering but not contracting
                b.  Ventricular Fibrillation - ventricles are quivering but not contracting

    Blood Vessels
        *    they are made of smooth muscles and epithelial tissue
        *    the average adult human has 60,000 miles of blood vessels

        There are 3 kinds of Blood Vessels

            1. Artery- will always carry blood away from the heart
                                 usually carrying oxygenated blood; the one exception is the pulmonary artery
                                they are elastic
                                 always found deep in tissue next to bones

            2. Vein - will always carry blood to the heart
                             will usually carry deoxygenated blood; exception is the pulmonary vein
                             are not elastic
                             close to surface
                             veins have valves and skeletal muscles squeeze veins as you move which moves
                                through valves.

            3. Capillary - smallest of the blood vessels
                               this is where the nutrient and gas exchanges occur
                                    average adult has 600 billion
                                    must go within at least 2 cells distance of every cell in the body because
                                        nutrients and oxygen can only diffuse so far
                                    only 1% of capillaries are open at any given time
                                    they are constantly opening and closing in relation to the demand for O₂
                                        and nutrients
                                    if all of the capillaries were open at once you would need 10x more blood
                                            & a heart 3x bigger to push it
                                    every pound you put on, requires an additional 200 miles of blood vessels

            Pulse - a surge of blood through arteries
                        3 typical places to take it (neck, wrist, and groin)
                        typical - 80 beats per minute.

         Blood Pressure - amount of force needed to push blood through blood vessels
                                      normal 120/80
                               Systolic Pressure - (top number) ventricle contracts
                               Diastolic Pressure - (bottom number) when ventricles relax
                                                                    amount of pressure required to push blood out
                               Sphygmomanometer - blood pressure cuff

        Vasoconstriction - smooth muscles in vessels tighten up; blood pressure goes up.
        Vasodilatation - smooth muscles relax; lumen gets wider; lower blood pressure.

    Blood - made in bone marrow (Hematopoiesis)
                average adult has 5 quarts

        4 components:
                1.  Plasma - liquid part of blood; 55% of total blood volume
                2.  Red Blood Cells - (erythrocyte) - 44% of total blood volume
                            biconcave disk - sunken in both sides this increases surface area allowing them
                                    to bind more O₂
                            they are anucleate in humans - no nucleus
                            lives 120 days
                       function is to carry oxygen, full of the protein hemoglobin.  Hemoglobin attracts
                                    and holds oxygen;
                            every drop of blood has 6 million red blood cells
                            2 million new every second
                            25 trillion red blood cells in the 5 quarts of blood
                3.  White Blood Cells - leucocytes - .5% of total blood volume
                            they have a nucleus
                       function to fight infection
                            5,000 white blood cells in a drop of blood
                    a.  Diapendiasis - WBC can get in or out of blood vessel to get where the infection is
                    b.  Pus - dead white blood cells

                4.  Platelets - thrombocytes (helps blood to clot)

        WHAT IS THE CLOTTING PROCESS?
            1.  Trauma (cellular damage) occurs the damaged tissue then releases Prothrombin
                    Activator
            2.  The prothrombin activator; in the presence of Vitamin K, converts prothrombin into
               thrombin.
            3.  Thrombin then converts fibrenogen which is soluble into fibren sticky insoluble threads
            4.  These sticky threads form a mesh or a net which catches platelets and RBC
                    It is termed a  platelet plug

           Thrombus - a stationary blood clot
           Embolus - a free-floating blood clot

    Blood Types:    A persons blood type is determined by the antigens or kinds of proteins that you
                                have. The antigens/proteins responsible for blood type are found on the surface
                                of the Red Blood Cells.  These antigens are genetically determined.
 

        Dr. Charles Drew - identified proteins in blood making transfusions a possibility

        Rh Factor - The Rh stands for Rhesus monkey, from whom this factor was first identified
                            The Rh factor is another protein found in the blood
                     *   if you have the Rh factor you are (Rh+).
                        A-  can give to A+, but A+ cant give to A- (only once).

        Erythroblastosis Fetalis - when mother is Rh- and father is Rh+.  If mothers and babies blood
                        is of differing Rh factors her antibodies could attack babies blood.
                        They have medication to prevent this.

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

     Function: to receive, send, and process information

     2 PARTS:
        1.  CNS - Central Nervous System - brain and spinal cord
        2.  PNS - Peripheral Nervous System - all other nerves.

        Neuron - Nerve Cell
            Parts
                1.    Dendrite - receive information
                2.    Soma - cell body
                3.    Axon - send information
                4.    Terminal Brush - where electrical signal is turned into chemical signal
                5.    Synapse - gap between neurons
                6.    Schwann Cell - wrap around axon and insulates it with Myelin - a kind of fat.
                        Myelinated axons - impulse travels faster
                        Unmyelinated axons- impulse is slower
                7.    Node of Ranvier - between Schwann cells
                         Saltation - when the impulse skips from one node of Ranvier to the next.
                8.    Vessicles - located within the end of the synaptic knob.  They contain the
                                        nuerotransmitters.

        Action Potential - the nerve impulse.
                                -  Once propagated the impulse moves down the axon in a self propagating
                                    wave of polarization, which is caused by sodium and potassium ions
                                    switching positions, this causes a positive charge inside the axon.

                                - Repolarization or recharging of the neuron  is carried out by the
                                Sodium-Potassium Pump - This is an active transport system which returns
                                    the ions to their original positions inside the axon.

        Threshold - the amount of stimulus needed in order to initiate or start an action potential
                        All or None response - The neuron either fires or it does not.  When it does fire it
                                                                always fires with same amount of energy.
                            Toilet a good example of an All or None response is a toilet flushing.  When the
                                        handle is pushed it must reach a certain point before the toilet flushes.
                                        When it does flush it flushes with the same force no matter how hard or
                                        how soft you push the handle.

        Neurotransmitter - chemicals that crosses synapse (see the tissue program for animation)
                            Two categories:
                                    a.    Stimulator - example Acetylcholine, Dopamine
                                    b.    Inhibitor - example Endorphin - which is the body’s natural pain killer

        Accommodation - the brains ability to disregards or block out nonessential information.
        Accupressure - certain nerves can be pressed which blocks pain (similar to acupuncture)
        Acupuncture - putting needles in nerves to block pain
                   Works because:    Large Nerves - Have priority & are slow moving
                                             Small Nerves - These are the pain nerves.  They are fast but
                                                                            they have low priority
                        So the needle is placed in the large nerves which blocks the faster pain nerves from
                            sending the pain signals to the brain.  If the brain doesn't receive the signal ....
                            NO PAIN

     3 PARTS OF BRAIN:

        1.  Cerebrum - thinking, memory, decision-making
        2.  Cerebellum - base of skull; balance and movement
        3.  Brainstem - instincts, basic body functions.
 

            Cerebrum
                    Cerebral Cortex - surface of cerebrum
                                                    outer 2 - 5 mm
                                                    vast majority of neuron are located here
                                                    The reason for the brain appearing wrinkled is to provide
                                                    surface area.
                          - Cerebrum has 2 halves - hemispheres - right and left
                          - Right cerebral hemisphere controls left side of body & vice versa
                          - Corpus Callosum - tissue that connects 2 hemispheres of the brain

            Cerebellum - also has 2 hemispheres
                                Arbor Vitae - "Tree of Life" pattern inside the cerebellum

            Brain Stem - urges, animal instincts
 

    Memory:

     * We are unable to forget anything that we have heard, eaten, smelled or seen,
            The memory is still there it is a matter of recall.

         3 KINDS OF MEMORY:
            1.  Short Term - a memory you are not intending to use for very long (menu order)
            2.  Recent - requires continuous thought (study for test or hold phone #)
            3.  Long Term - needed often, if not everyday

    Sleep - you need 5 hours of sleep; you can get by on 3 for a couple of days.
         2 Periods:
            1.  Normal - no dreams
                                deep sleep
                                best resting
                                low brain activity
                                last about 90 minutes
             2.  Paradoxical - Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
                                where dreams take place
                                high brain activity
                                muscle paralysis
                                90 sec - min.

        Deja Vu - input to brain stops for 2 milliseconds

        Conscious Mind - you are aware of surroundings
        Subconious Mind - below awareness level
                                        it is constantly picking up subtle signals and cues, it can alert the
                                                conscious mind to focus attention on items to determine their
                                                importance
                                        picks up nonverbal communication

        Subliminal Message - message aimed at the subconscious mind

        Reflex - an automatic response normally used to protect the body
                        the brain doesn't make the decision
                        signal travels to the spinal chord and comes back to muscle

         5 SENSES:
            1.  Taste
            2.  Smell - 7 smells; tasting food is combination of tastes and smells
                        a.  Floral
                        b.  Camphor (moth ballsor camphophenique)
                        c.   Musk
                        d.  Peppermint
                        e.  Putrid   (rotten)
                        f.   Punget - earthy smell
                        g.   Ether - alcohol, gasoline
          3.  Touch
          4.  Sight
          5.  Hearing

Hearing

There is a diagram in your book on page 864 use it.

The ear is divided into three sections
 a. Outer ear
 b. Middle ear
 c. Inner ear
Each of these has various parts and functions.

The outer ear has two main parts
 1.  The pinna which is the fleshy ear.  Its function is to   direct the
Sound waves into the ear canal.  Example if   you cup your hand
Around your ear you can enhance the   sound coming in.
 2. The ear canal which is the tube through which the sound   waves
Travel on their way to the ear drum.
To protect the outer ear you body produces wax which help trap
Dust, dirt and small organisms.

The middle ear has five parts
 1. The tympanic membrane (ear drum) which is located at    the end of
The ear canal.  This membrane is caused to     vibrate as the incoming
Sounds hit against it.  Connected    to the tympanic membrane are
The three smallest bones in    the human body.
 2. The first of the three bones is called the malleus   (hammer) it is
Connected directly to the tympanic   membrane.
 3. Coming off of the malleus is the incas (anvil) which   strikes the
Last bone.
 4. The stapes (stirrup) is connected and vibrates against   the inner
Ear.
 5. The eustachian tube allows for the equilibration of air   pressure
From the middle ear with the outside air   pressure.
 the function of the three bones is to amplify sound.  They are able
To amplify sound 10 to 20 times.  Why????  The eardrum picks up the
Sound waves causing the ear drum to vibrate, but the energy of its
Vibrations all go into the 3 small bones.  In other words the force is
Directed onto the inner ear at one small point which concentrates
The force hence amplifying the sound.  Example i step on your foot
With my heel, i weigh 190 lbs, you say ouch please mr. Phillips sir get
Off my foot.  (your are extremely polite because finals are
Approaching)  however, if is were to wear my snazzy black leather
High heels with 4 inch spiked heels.  The heel is much smaller if i step
On your foot now with my 190 lbs i might very easily puncture your
Foot.  And if i were to step down on purpose with force i could send
The spiked heel through your foot.  That's why a nail has a pointed
End so the force of the hammer is all concentrated at one small
Point and the nail is driven into the wood.

The inner ear has two parts
 1.  The semi-circular canals are three fluid filled tubes all   set a 90
Degree angles to one another.  Their function is to help  you
Maintain your balance.  As you move your body or head the  fluid
Pushes on nerves which in turn send signals to the  cerebellum
Which then helps you maintain your balance.  If you  spin around
And around and then stop and try and walk you  don't do a very
Good job.  Why???????  The fluid in your semi- circular canals are
Still swirling around, kind of like a toilet  bowl, sending mixed and
Confusing signals to the cerebellum.
 2. The cochlea which looks like a snails shell is a fluid   filled
Chamber that has numerous hairs sticking down into   the fluid.  As
The vibrations strike the ear drum and are   then amplified by the 3
Small bones which in turn strike   the cochlea causing the fluid to
Vibrate.  These vibrations  cause the hair to move.  Attached to the
Hair are nerve endings  which then pick up the movement of the
Hairs and send the  signal onto the brain.  Different tones and
Pitches cause  different kinds of vibrations and the nerve ending
Will send  different signals to the brain so we can discern
Different  sounds.
 

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EVOLUTION

 Evolve - to change slowly
 Evolution - the process of organisms changing slowly over time to better fit or adapt to their surroundings
     - All life forms evolved from lower life forms
     - The earth is 4.5 billion years old
 Creationism - all things were created by a Supreme Being; took 6 days - 5,761 years ago; is not taught in school because it is faith.

Three important scientist who were instrumental in the development of the Theory of Evolution
     1.    Lamark - 1801 all species are descended from other species.
     2.    Darwin - leaves England on the H.M.S. Beagle and goes to the Galapagos Islands.
     3.    Wallace - asks Darwin for permission to write about the theory since it has been 20 years since his trip to the Galapagos on the H.M.S. Beagle.
            Darwin decides to publish before someone else get the credit - 1859 - Origin of Species -

5 Basic Principles:
    1.  Like Organisms begat (produce) like organisms.
    2.  The number of individuals that survive to maturity is smaller than the number produced.
    3.  Within any population, there exists variation
    4.  Those individuals that survive to maturity are determined by their variations and chance. (survival of the fittest)
    5.  The accumulation of the variation will lead toward new species.

EVOLUTION
Natural Selection - When the environment is selecting those characteristics that determine the survival of individuals.  Examples Light moth-vs-Dark moth
    In the woods of England their is a species of moth that has two color variations Dark & Light.  The woods are mainly populated with trees that have white
    or very light colored bark.  Therefore the Light colored moths are better camouflaged than the Dark colored moths when they land on these trees.
    Consequently there are many more Light colored moths than Dark colored moths.  That is there was during the Industrial revolution of the early 20th century
    the factories put out so much air pollution that the forest trees gradually went from white colored bark to dark bark due to the dirt and smog accumulating on
    the bark.  In the 1960's researchers went into these woods with the now darkly stained trees and counted the numbers of Light colored moths to the numbers
    of Dark colored moths.  What do you expect happened?  That's right now there were more Dark moths than Light moths because they were better camouflaged
    than the light moths.  This is an example of Natural selection at work the characteristic most favorable is being selected by environmental pressures namely birds
    eating those poorly camouflaged moths.  Incidentally, since pollution has been such a concern for a number of years now the air in England is clearing up and the
    trees are going back to their original lightly colored bark as the rain washes them clean.  We are already starting to see the numbers of Light colored moths to
    rise once again.

Artificial Selection- This is when Man is choosing traits that he wants not Nature.  For example, we select the best and highest producing varieties of corn,
    wheat, fruit.  We select certain traits in our domestic animals whether its bigger for work or more tender or tastier.  Dogs are selected for disposition, size,
    hunting instinct.

Sexual Selection- This is when one sex is selecting those characteristics in a mate that will enhance survivability of offspring.  It is always the females that are
    doing the sexual selection.  If the females are turned on by men with big floppy purple ears then those of us with them will mate those with out will be left out
    & not pass on their small pink ears.  A better truer example goes like this: Females are doing the selecting because they will invest so much of their time and
    physical well being into having a child.  So they want a mate who is strong and healthy and has those characteristics that will best insure the survivability of her
    child that she is about to invest so much time into rearing and bearing.  That's why deer run in herds of one buck to many does the does follow the most virile
    male which will insure their Babies of the genes needed to be fast and jump high and have big horns

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 EVOLUTION OF MAN

Primate Characteristics:
1.  Opposable Thumb- allow one to grasp and manipulate object.  example pick up pen without using your thumb.
2.  Visual Acuity- eyes set forward to give better depth perception.  Better fir living in trees.
3.  Upright posture- we all sit or stand up.  This frees our hands
4.  Care of young- we take care of young an extremely long time compared to the other animals

Two Major Groups of Primates
A. Prosimeans  Lemur & Tarsier   (very primitive)
B. Anthropoids Monkeys, Apes, & Humans
     KINDS OF APES:
         Gorilla
         Chimpanzee - - the closest relative to man 97% of its DNA is identical to ours.
         Gibbon
         Orangu-Tang
 
 BIPEDALISM
 This is the ability to walk upright or on two feet.
This is a very important step forward in our evolution      WHY?
    4 Reasons why we moved toward bipedalism
        1.  Carry Food
        2.  Carry Young
        3.  Shrinking forest at the time so we lived in grasslands in order to see had to raise up on hind legs
        4.  Carry weapons

 MAN'S EARLY ANCESTORS

Australioramidus - 4.4 mya - closest link to apes.

Australiopithicus
    1.  First evidence is 3.6 million years ago the last evidence is 1.4 million years ago.
    2.  Walked upright fossil remains show pelvic structure which is more similar to ours than to an ape demonstrate how ape walks
            and why compared to how a man walks.  Ape must shift weight over leg to maintain balance due to pelvic structure where as we don't.
    3.  Small creatures only about 70 pounds.
    4.  "Lucy"
    5.  Over the time period two kinds of Australiopithicus developed
        a.  Australiopithicus robustus- bigger large jaws for eating rough food.  Died out dead end.
        b.  Australiopithicus africans- small nimble led toward modern man

Homo Habilis
    1. "Handy Man"
    2.  1.75 million years ago so there is some overlap between when 1st Homo
        shows up until all Australiopithici are gone
    3.  1st tool maker
 

Homo Erectus
    1. 1.6 million years ago to 300,000 years ago.
    2.  Better tools than Homo Habilis.
    3.  1st to develop and use FIRE

Homo Sapien
 3 KINDS:
1.  Homo Sapien archaic - 400,000 - 200,000
2.  Homo Sapien neanderthal  - 1.6 - 300,000 - first evidence of fire - gives them warmth, cooking, big jump in food source, weapons
3.  Homo Sapien cromagnon - 92,000 - cave painters, agriculture

 Importance of fire
    A.  Extended diet- things that before were indigestible now can be eaten, food can be dried and preserved, meat and vegetables are
            more easily digested when cooked help out young/sick or elderly
    B.  Better tools- Fire hardened spears, making flint tools by heating rocks and dropping cold water on them to splinter.
    C.  Social Activity- Pass on ideas around fire, share knowledge, work on language skills.
    D.  Light & Warmth
    E.  Protection- Put at cave entrance keep lions & tigers and bears Oh My away

Homo Sapien came in 3 varieties
 
     A. Homo sapien archaic don't know much about except was around from about 400,000 - 200,000 year ago

     B. Homo sapien neanderthal
        Named after quarry site in Germany where they dug  first Neanderthal out of
        1.  150,000 years - 35,000 years ago.
        2.  Even better tool.
        3.  Wore clothing- We know because we have found burial sites.
        4.  Buried Dead.
        5.  Believed in after life- This is supposition but reasonable because they did bury their dead and place food, weapons tools clothing
            that they would need on journey.
        6.  This also suggest that they were capable of  SPEECH.  Why?  If you are going to bury somebody and place perfectly good food
            and tools with them you must be able to communicate the abstract concept of the after life and the need for those things in it.

    C. Homo sapien cro-magnon
         Named for site in France where they found first Cro-   Magnon
        1.  92,000 years ago to present
        2.  We fall in this category we are indistinguishable physically from these ancestors.
        3.  Refined tools.
        4.  Engraved Bone.
        5.  These are the cave painters